Coaching the Brain

Frontal lobe and executive brain functions

Within the human brain, the frontal lobes perform the most advanced and complex functions, including ‘executive’ functions undertaken within the prefrontal cortex. Similar to the conductor of an orchestra the frontal lobes direct and integrate the work of other parts of the brain (Goldberg, 2001). Frontal lobe functioning relates to intentionality, purposefulness and complex decision making, adapting to new situations, planning for the future, and self-regulating actions in order to achieve long-term objectives (Goldberg, 2001). Research using advanced imaging technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has begun to reveal previously unseen neural connections in the living human brain, providing evidence that the adult brain has neuroplasticity, involving the ability to change its structure and function in response to experience (Begley, 2007).

Goal setting

Goal setting is fundamental to many coaching approaches. A goal is what an individual is trying to accomplish, similar to the concept of purpose and intent (Locke et al., 1981). The frontal lobes play a vital role in purposeful behaviour such as goal setting and attainment. The prefrontal cortex enables us to form a conscious image of a goal and anticipate something which does not yet exist, to plan the necessary action and avoid distractions, and review actions relative to initial intentions (Gellatly & Zarate, 1998; Goldberg, 2001; Sacks, 2001).

Part of the coaching psychologist’s role is to help clients to maintain their determination to achieve a goal (Johnston, 2005). Goal-setting and goal-attainment have been found to be related to the production of brain chemicals such as dopamine. A number of separate and interacting dopamine systems have been identified linking cortical and subcortical regions of the brain. Dopamine is proposed to mediate many brain functions and is, for example, associated with pleasure, reward, memory, planning, creative problem-solving and motivation (Ashby, Isen & Turken, 1999; Jarrett, 2007). Dopamine also helps to modulate cognitive flexibility and shield goal intentions from distraction (Dreisbach et al., 2005). Levels of mild positive affect induced by creativity, problem-solving, and the successful achievement of a task have been found to relate to a concomitant release of dopamine (Ashby et al., 1999).

Coaching practice

Coaching is about human growth and change (Stober, 2006). A challenge faced by coaches in the coaching process is how to assist clients to contemplate and bring about change. Coaching psychologists’ practice typically involves utilisation of knowledge about a range of coaching approaches, models, and techniques as part of a case conceptualisation approach designed to help clients to achieve their stated goals and objectives.

In a survey looking at the practice of coaching psychologists, Whybrow and Palmer (2006) found that the majority of coaching psychologists describe a facilitation approach, involving coaching within a cognitive, behavioural, and/or solution-focused framework. Aspects of coaching in relation to brain functioning, especially in terms of frontal lobe functions, includes goal planning, creativity, problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility and motivation. Methodologies and techniques used in coaching, including emotional intelligence and mindfulness, highlight how frontal lobe functioning is related to wider brain functioning, including the regulation of the relationship between the rational and emotional centres of the brain.

A range of models have been developed and incorporated into coaching process. Models include GROW (Whitmore, 2002), ACHIEVE (Dembkowski & Elridge, 2003), POSITIVE (Libri, 2004), PRACTICE (Palmer, 2007) and problem-solving models (e.g. Wasik, 1984). Components common to these models, e.g. the generation of goals, options, alternative courses of action, evaluation of options and consequences, action planning, review and evaluation of action reflect frontal lobe or executive functioning.

In a keynote address to the 1st SGCP International Coaching Conference in London, 2006, Michael Cavanagh, the renowned Coaching and Clinical Psychologist, argued that, through the development of well-developed clinical skills and the ability to use a solution-focused approach to case conceptualisation, Coaching Psychology is moving towards meta skill sets rather than the use of tools. Meta skills sets include the ability to take a complex perspective, a recognition of the impact of the quality of a conversation and the use of mindfulness to see rather than being had by our stream of consciousness. It could be argued that the meta skill sets of coaches might be further developed through an ability to conceptualise the coaching process from a complex perspective that considers aspects of brain functioning.

Working memory

Working memory, a component of prefrontal brain functioning, facilitates learning and assists conscious, focused attention on information, ideas and goals. However, working memory has limited capacity to hold information ‘in mind’. By contrast, sub-cortical structures in the brain have far greater capacity because they are ‘hardwired’ to deal with routine, habitual activity that requires less conscious attention and energy (Schwartz & Begley, 2002).

Evidence from cognitive therapy research in the treatment of depression (Mayberg, 2003) suggests that neuroplasticity can result from reducing overactivity in the prefrontal cortex, in terms of how information is processed, which helps to train the brain to adopt different thinking circuits. In coaching practice, this might involve the use of questions and techniques that help coachees’ to hold relevant goal-related information in working memory (i.e. conscious awareness or focused attention) to enable them to process or work with information or ideas without being overwhelmed by such information. With this notion in mind, taking a complex perspective might also involve an understanding of how to manipulate elements of frontal lobe functioning such as working memory as a means to help coachees’ to identify and develop ideas, options, actions and generate solutions.

Emotional intelligence

Goleman (1996) defines metacognition and metamood in terms of self-awareness. Developing awareness of the emotional states of ourselves and others is central to the concept of emotional intelligence, defined as ‘the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions’ (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p.189).

In coaching practice, anticipation of change, such as goal setting, can activate the fear circuitry in the temporal lobes of the brain, specifically a structure known as the amygdala, whose activation decreases the capacity and effectiveness of working memory. Goleman (1996) describes the ‘amygdala hijack’ (similar to the ‘fight-or-flight’ response) which becomes activated when we perceive a threat to our well-being and, as a consequence, restricts the ability of the left prefrontal area to focus on higher intellectual functions. Bradberry and Greaves (2005) assert that emotional intelligence involves the smooth flow of traffic in both directions between the rational (i.e. frontal lobes) and emotional brain regions. Emotional intelligence skills can help coachees’ to regulate the negative influence on goal attainment and motivation of self-limiting beliefs and emotions such as anxiety, depression, anger and frustration. Self-awareness and self-management aspects of emotional intelligence may benefit coaching outcomes by facilitating the engagement of frontal lobe functions associated with creativity, problem-solving, reasoning and decision-making.

Positive affect

The emerging field of positive psychology has sought to cultivate positive emotions and focus on clients’ strengths. The ‘broaden-and-build’ model of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998) highlights the distinct and complementary relationship between positive emotions (e.g. joy, interest and contentment) and negative emotions (e.g. fear, anger and sadness). In coaching terms, positive emotions help to broaden an individual’s habitual modes of thinking, thereby building their personal resources for coping. Consistent with Bradberry and Greaves’ (2005) proposal about the smooth flow of traffic in both directions between the frontal and temporal lobes, coaching practice can help a coachee to experience positive emotions that further increase the potential for frontal lobe engagement and motivation in terms of goal-directed behaviour. In addition, positive affect has an ‘undoing’ effect on negative emotions caused by the narrowing of a person’s momentary thought-action repertoire, involving activation of fight or flight tendencies (Fredrickson, 2000), similar to the ‘amygdala hijack’ (Goleman, 1996).

Coaching awareness and insight

Whitmore (2002) emphasises the importance of awareness and responsibility as part of the coaching process. A key role of coaching is to assist coachees’ to take responsibility for their goals and actions. According to Grant (2003), the coach facilitates coachees’ progress through the cycle of self-regulation towards goal attainment. He proposes that self-regulation, sociocognition and metacognition increase coachees’ insight and assist goal setting and attainment. Self-regulation involves the ability to self-monitor and change current behaviours and thought processes by objectively examining the self (Carver & Scheier, 1981). According to Grant (2003), goal-directed self-regulation involves the setting of a goal, developing and implementing a plan of action, monitoring of performance (through self-reflection) and evaluation of performance by comparison to a standard (gaining insight). Such evaluation can be used to change actions to further enhance performance and goal attainment.

The coaching psychologist’s role might typically involve engaging coachees’ in thinking about setting goals and reflecting upon goal-related activity and problems. Encouraging clients to retain information in conscious awareness increases the potential to develop insights and solutions (Rock, 2006). Research into insight using fMRI and EEG technologies (Jung-Beeman et al., 2004) identified sudden bursts of high-frequency 40 Hz oscillations (gamma waves) in the frontal and temporal lobes just prior to moments of insight in a problem-solving task.

Mindfulness

Human beings have the capacity to use conscious awareness to regulate negative emotional states. Mindfulness can benefit people in their everyday lives but can also benefit coaching practice (Passmore & Marianetti, 2007). Mindfulness is a practice that cultivates conscious attention and awareness of the moment in a non-judgemental way. Studies have demonstrated that mindfulness training is effective in reducing stress, pain, anxiety, and depression and the positive effects can also be experienced by healthy individuals (Shapiro, Schwartz & Bonner, 1998; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

Mindfulness has been demonstrated to shift the brain into a different mode of functioning through shifts in brain activity from the right to the left hemisphere within the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Davidson et al., 2003), an area that generates positive feelings and dampens down negative feelings (Bennett-Goleman, 2001). It is suggested that inhibitory signals from the prefrontal cortex can limit the effects of the amygdala, associated with emotions such as fear, anger, anxiety and depression. Advanced technologies such as diffusion tensor imaging may provide evidence about the potential for meditation practice to invoke structural change involving altered connections between the frontal lobes and the amygdala (Begley, 2007).

Motivational Interviewing

Motivational Interviewing (Miller & Rollnick, 1991) is a methodology that aims to raise coachees’ awareness of the need for action without trying to convince the person that they have a problem. This approach uses techniques to elicit ‘change talk’ and develop coachees’ awareness and insight by identifying discrepancies between their desired goals and current action or attitude towards these goals.

Coaching neuroplasticity

Rock and Schwartz (2006) emphasise that neuroplasticity in the brain is facilitated by increasing the conscious focus of attention to help to counteract the limited capacity of working memory. Rock and Schwartz propose the concept of attention density which can be achieved, for example, by encouraging a person to hold a thought or insight in mind. This allows connections to be made with other parts of the brain and fosters ‘self-directed neuroplasticity’.

Rock (2006) proposes that a solution-focused questioning approach is used to help clients to generate self-insight rather than being told or given advice by coaches. Rock suggests asking clients to write down a list of as many points, issues or benefits as possible relating to an idea as this increases the potential for information to become ‘hardwired’ into brain structures with greater storage capacity than working memory. Enabling ideas and insights to become ‘hardwired’ in the brain means that they are more likely to become routine and habitual and less likely to be forgotten. The hardwiring of information also requires less conscious energy, thus freeing up limited working memory capacity resources.